A Brief History of English Literature
Art is an expression of life in its truth and beauty; and artist looks deeper into life and enjoys that treasure of truth and beauty; and his realization finds expression in his creation in the form of music, dance, painting or literature. Literature is a kind of artist's record of life - a simple portrait presenting in the facts in the perspective of soul and nature, and an author is an architect of that work of art which has its natural appeal to the readers' emotions and imagination rather than his intellect.

A literary creation is called literature when it attains the stage of universality with the widest human interests and simplest human emotions. Pure literature knows no bound of race, land or religion. It's chiefly occupied with elementary emotions and passions like love and hate, joy and sorrow, fear and faith- the natural expression of human hearts.

Literature, when first created, remains personal, but when expressed, it becomes universal. It has some definite object: to know man in his inner and outer nature, his feelings and expression of life, his good or bad activities. In order to understand a people of an age, it is necessary to study their history that records their deeds, but it is equally important to read their literature that records their dreams which made their deeds possible.

ENGLISH LITERATURE
English literature beings with songs and stories of the ancestors of the English people who lived on the borders of the North Sea. Then the tribes of those ancestors-the Jutes, Angles and Saxons conquered Britain during the later part of fifth century and laid the foundation of the English nation. They were mainly warriors and sea rovers, but the men of profound emotions. Their poetry reflects their nature trough subjects, like the sea, the boats, battles, adventure, nostalgia and so on. In the history of English literature, this period of creation is known as "The Anglo-Saxon Period" which produced chiefly the first poetry in Latin, especially great epic poem "Beowulf" , and a few other pieces like "Widsith", Deor's Lament" and "The Seafarer".

Bede, a historian, and Ca'edmon and Lynewulf, the two great poets, belong to the Northumbrian school of writers between 650 and 850. The beginning of English prose writing is seen under Alfred (848-901) who revised and enlarged the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

The Anglo-Norman period began after the conquest of Anglo-Saxon England under William, Duke of Normandy of France. The literature, which they brought to England, is remarkable for its romantic tales of love and adventure. With its influence , the Anglo-Saxon speech simplified itself by dropping many of its Teutonic vocabulary to become the English language. Thus English literature is combination of French and Saxon elements.

THE AGE OF CHAUCER
The fourteenth century produced only a few eminent writers, of whom, Geoffrey Chaucer is greatest of all. Chaucer's best poetical works are "The Canterbury Tales", "The Romance of the Rose (translation)", "Troilus and Cressida", and "The Legend of Good Woman". Chaucer's works and Wyclif's translation of the Bible developed the Midland into the national standard of prose in England.

The two other contemporaries of Chaucer were William Langland and John Mandeville. Langland is known for his great poem "Piers Plowman". About the year 1356, Mandeville's work "Voyage and Travail of Sir John Mandeville" was written in the midland dialect giving an outline of his wide travels.

THE AGE OF ELIZABETH
The period between the later part of the sixteenth and the earlier part of seventeenth centuries is called the "Age of Elizabeth" which produced many excellent prose works, although it is essentially an age of poetry.

During this age, the emergence of the first national poet (since Chaucer's death in 1400) of Edmund Spenser, along with Christopher Marlow, Philip Sydney, William Shakespeare, Ben Johnson, and Francis Bacon is noticed. Spencer produced "Shepherd's Calendar", "The Faerie Queen"; Marlowe's poem "Hero and Leander", and his translation of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" are remarkable. And besides his poems, Philip Sydney wrote his romance prose "Arcadia", and The Defense of Poisie, a critical essay.

William Shakespeare's appearance as a great force in the literary arena of English Literature secured him the foremost place in the world's literature, he is over the ages a universal poet and dramatist. His famous works are "Henry VI", "Richard III", "The Comedy of Errors", "Titus Andronicus", "The Taming of the Shrew", "Love's Labour's Lost", "Romeo and Juliet", "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "The Two Gentlemen of Verona", "King John", "Richard II", "The Merchant of Venice", "Henry IV", "Henry IV (Part Two)", "Much Ado about Nothing", "Henry V", "Julius Caesar", "The Merry Wives of Windsor", "As You Like It", "Hamlet", "Twelfth Night", "Trollus and Cressida', "All's Well that Ends Well", "Measure for Measure", "Othello", "Macbeth", "King Lear", "Antony and Cleopatra", "Timon of Athens", "Pericles", "Cymbeline", "The Winter's Tale", "The Tempest", and "Henry VIII".

Ben Johnson's powerful dramas, like "Every Man in His Humor", "Cyntia's Revels", "The Poetster", "The Alchemist", "The Volpone", "The Silent Woman" etc. and Bacon's "The Advancement of Learning", "Novum Organum", "The Instauratio" and his famous "Essays" accelerated immensely the steps of growth of the English literature of the age.

THE PURITAN AGE
The period between 1625 and 1675 is known as the "Puritan Age (or John Milton's Age)", because during the period, Puritan standards prevailed in England, and also because the greatest literary figure John Milton (1608-1674) was a Puritan. The Puritans struggled for righteousness and liberty.

Puritanism became a great national movement which included English Churchman as well as extreme Separatists. While the Catholic Church had always held true to the ideal of the united church, the possibility of the ideal of a purely national Protestantism grew.

The political upheaval of the period is summed up in the struggle between the King and the Parliament, the blasphemy of a man's divine right to rule his fellowmen was ended. Thus the age marked the beginning of the reformation.

In literature also, the age created a sort of confusion due to breaking up of old ideas. Some of the literary men had the tendencies to look backward for the old golden age, and some wanted to look forward for a better world with the throbs of hope and fresh vitality and youth. And in John Milton, the indomitable Puritan spirit finds its noblest expression. There was Samuel Daniel, John Donne, George Herbert, Thomas Carew, Robert Herick, Sir John Suckling, Sir Richard Lovelace, John Bunyan, Robert Burton, Sir Thomas Browne, Thomas Fuller, Jeremy Taylor, Richard Baxter, Izaak Walton among other important writers of the age.

Milton's "Paradise Lost" and "Paradise Regained" , his sonnets and other works; Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress", and "Faerie Queene", Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy", Browne's "Religio Medici", Taylor's "Holy Living and Dying", and Walton's "Complete Angler" are known as remarkable works of the age.

THE RESTORATION PERIOD
During 1660-1700, there were tremendous social reactions from the restraint of parliament. A wild delight in the pleasures and varieties of the world like performances of dramas and theaters, the revival of bull and bear baiting, sports, music, dancing etc. replaced the absorption in other "other-worldliness",. The writers turned from Italian influence of imagination to French objective repression of emotions.

The greatest literary figure of the Restoration period is John Dryden (1631-1700) whose book provides an excellent reflection of both good and evil tendencies of age. He is best known for his narrative poem "Annus Mirabilis", "All for love", "Religio Laici", "A'eneid", "Fables" etc.

Samuel Butler, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke were among others prominent writers of the age. Butler's "Hudibras", Hobbe's "Leviathan", Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" etc. add glory to the literature of the age.

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY LITERATURE
The literature of the century may be classified under three categories: the trend of classicism, the revival of romantic poetry, and the beginning of the "modern novel". Modern newspapers like "Chronicle", "Post", and "Times" and the literary magazines like "Tatler" and "Spectator" had greatly influenced the development of the prose style.

Alexander Pope (1688-1774), a unique figure during the period, was, for a generation, "the poet" of a great nation. Pope's "Pastorals", "Windsor", "Forest Messiah", "Essays on Criticism", "Tamburlaine", "Eloise to Abelard", "the Rape of the Lock", "Dunciad", "Moral Epistles" are well known.

Besides, Jonathan Swift's (1667-1745) famous work "Bickerstaff Almanac" containing "Predictions for the year 1708, as Determined by the Unerring Stars", , his two great satires are "Tale of a Tub", and "Gulliver's Travels".

Joseph Addison (1672-1719) seized upon the new social life and made it the subject of many of his essays based upon types of men and manners. The most interesting work of Addison's early life is his "Account of the Greatest English Poets". His "Cato" is one of his popular poems. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) is remembered chiefly for his "Dictionary", an English lexicon, the "Lives of the Poets", and "Rasselas", "Prince of Abyssinia". Edmund Burke (1729-1797) is best known for essays, like "Reflections of the French Revolution", "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful". Edward Gibbon's (1737-1794) "Memoirs" and "The Decline and Fall of Roman Empire" are two remarkable works. Thomas Gray's (1716-1771) "The Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" is the most perfect poem of the age, although his "Letters" and the "Journal" are also noteworthy.

Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774) is famous for his "The Deserted Village" (poem), although he was also noted essayist, dramatist and novelist. His "The Vicar of Wakefield", "The Citizen of The World", "The Good-Natured Man" and "She Stoops to Conquer" brought him more fame. William Cowper (1731-1800) wrote his largest poem, "The Task". Robert Burns (1759-1796) is better known as a great song-writer. William Blake (1759-1796) is perhaps the most original romantic poet of the age. His last huge prophetic works, prophetic works; "Jerusalem" and "Milton", the "Poetical Sketches", "Songs of Experience" reflect different views of human soul. His other famous works are "Urizen", "Gates of Paradise", "Marri age of Heaven and Hell", "The French Revolution", "The Vision of the Daughters of Albion".

James Thomson's (1700-1748) poems, like "Rule Britannia" (one of the national songs of Britain), "The Castle of Indolence", "The Seasons"; William Collins' (1721-1759) "Oriental Eclogems", George Crabbe's (1721-1759) poetical works, like "The Village", "The Parish Register", "The Borough", "Tales in Verse", "Tales of the Hall" ; James Macpherson's (1736-1796) "Fragments of Ancient Poetry Collected in the Highlands", "Fingal", "Temora" are wonderful works of the age.

Other prominent writers of the age were Thomas Chatterton, Thomas Percy, the author of "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry", "Northern Antiquities", Daniel Defoe, famous for his "Robinson Crusoe", "Journal of the Plague Year", "Memoirs of a Cavalier", "Captain Singleton", "Colonel Jack", "Moll Flanders", "Roxana" etc.; Samuel Richardson, a noted writer of "Family Letters", "Pamela", "Clarissa", "Sir Charles Grandison" etc.; Henry Fielding, the author of "Joseph Andrews", "Jonathan Wilde", "The History of Tom Tones", "A Foundling", "Amelia" etc.; Tobias Smollett, The author of "Roderick Random", "Peregrine Pickle", "Humphrey Clinker" etc.; Lawrence Sterne, the author of "Tristram Shandy", "A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy".

THE AGE OF ROMANTICISM
During the first half of the nineteenth century, known as "Age of Romanticism", the literature in England was largely political in form, and mainly romantic in spirit. In the early works of Wordsworth, Byron and Shelley the political turmoil in England and the triumph of democracy are reflected. The age is marked by the first appearance of some women novelists, like Anne Radcliffe, Jane Porter, Maria Edgeworth, and Jane Austen, in addition to many prominent poets, like William Wordsworth (170-1850) who is famous for his "Lyrical Ballads" (in the partnership with Coleridge), "The Prelude", "The Excursion", "The Recluse", "The Home at Grasmere", especially for poems, "Lucy", "Intimations of Immortality", etc.

Samuel Coleridge (1772-1834), a powerful poet and a contemporary of Wordsworth, was a great man of grief who made the world glad. His chief contribution is "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" to the "Lyrical Ballads". His other famous poems are "A Day Dream", "The Devil's Thoughts", "The Suicide's Argument", "The Day Wandering of Cain", "Kubla Khan", "Christabal" etc.; and his prose works include "Biographia Literaria", or "Sketches of My Literary Life and Opinions", "Lectures on Shakespeare", "Aids to Reflection" etc.

Robert Southey (1774-1843) is famous for his "Thalaba", "The Curse of Kehama", "Madoc", "Roderick", "Life of Nelson", "Lives of British Admirals" etc. Walter Scott (1771-1883) is poet of "Marmion", "Lady of the Lake", "Ministrelsy of the Scottish Border", "The Lady of the Last Ministrel" etc. His novels, "Waverley", "Guy Mannering", "The Antiquary", "Black Dwarf", "Old Mortality", "Rob Roy", "The Heart of Midlothian" etc. are successful. But is most popular work is "Ivanhoe" which was followed by "Kenilworth", "Nigel", "Peveril", "Woodstock", "Count Robert", "The Talisman" etc.

George Gordon, Lord Byron's (1788-1824) famous works are "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage", "Manfred", "Cain", "Mazeppa", "The prisoner of Chillon", "The Corsair", "The Giaour", "Don Juan" etc. Percy Bysshe Shelley's (1792-1822) noteworthy works are "Alastor", or "the Spirit of Solitude", "Prometheus Unbound", "Queen Mab", "The Revolt of Islam", "Hellas", "The Witch of Atlas", "Adonais", etc. Shelley's popular poems are "The Cloud", "To a Skylark", "Ode to the West Wind", "To Night" etc.

John Keats (1795-1821), a poet devoted to his ideal, who lived for poetry, has produced wonderful poetry: Poems, "Endymion", "Lamia, Isabella", "The Eve of St. Agnes", and "Other Poems" etc. Charles Lamb (1775-1835) is renowned chiefly for his "Tales from Shakespeare", in addition to "Rosamund Gray", "John Woodvil", "Specimens of English Dramatic Poets Contemporary with Shakespeare", "Last Essays of Elia" etc.

Thomas De Quincey (1785-1859) is recognized as an established author for his prose works, like "Confessions of an English Opium Eater", "Literary Reminiscences", "On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth", "Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts", "Letters to a Young Man", "Joan of Arc", "The Revolt of The Tartars", "The English Mail-coach", "Autobiographical Sketches" etc. He wrote on wide range subjects: "Klosterheim", a novel, "Logic of Political Economy", "The Essays on Style and Rhetoric", "Philosophy of Herodotus" etc.

Jane Austen (1775-1817), who is a powerful author, was famous for her novels, like "Pride and Prejudice", "Sense and Sensibility", "Emma", "Mansfield Park", "Northanger Abbey" etc.

THE VICTORIAN AGE
The later part of the nineteenth century is said to be the "Victorian Age" of English literature, because Victoria became queen of England in 1837, and there was rapid growth of democracy and splendid progress in all branches of art and science. The age produced two great poets, Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892) and Robert Browning (1812-1889). Tennyson is famous for his works, like "Poems", "The Princes", "a Medley", "Maud", "In Memoriam", "The Idylls of the King", "Ballads", "Demeter" etc. Robert Browning's works, like "Paulin", "Paracelsus", "Stafford", "Sordello", "Bells and Pomegranates", "Letters", "The Ring and The Book", "Dramatic Lyrics", "Dramatic Romances and Lyrics", "Men and Women", "Dramatic Personae", "The Inn Album", "Jocoseria Colombe's Birthday", "In a Balcony", "Fifine at the Fair", "Red Cotton Night-Cap Country", and of all "The Last Ride Together", established him as a great poet of the age.

Besides the said two poets, there were few other prominent writers of the age. Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) was the leading writer of all of them. Her "Piers Plowman", "The Seraphim and Other Poems", "Sonnets from the Portuguese", "Casa Guide Windows", "Aurora Leigh", "Poem Before Congress", "Last Poems" are remarkable. Robert Browning married this invalid talented lady whose fame spread much before her husband in the literary field.

Other writers were Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Moris, and Algernon Charles Swinburne. Among the novelists of the Victorian age, the most prominent was Charles Dickens (1812-1870) whose major works included "Pickwick Papers", "Oliver Twist", "Nicholas Nickleby", "Bleak Dorrit", "Davis Copperfield", "The Chimes", "The Cricket on the Hearth", "Charismas Carol", "Dombey and Son", "Our Mutual Friend", "Old Curiosity Shop" etc.

Another successful novelist of the age was William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863) whose important works are "Henry Esmond", "Pendennis", "The Newcomes", "The Virginians", and of all of them the most popular "Vanity Fair" that brought him instant fame. His essays, like "English Humorists" and "The Four Georges", are among finest essays of the period.

In the Victorian Age, the prominent writers, like Mary Ann Evans, George Eliot produced a few worthy novels, like "Scenes of Clerical Life", "Adam Bede", "Mill on the Floss", "Silas Marner", "Romola", "Felix Halt", "Middlemarch", "Daniel Deronda" etc., the drama-poem, "Spanish Gypsy", and a volume of essays, "the Impressions of Theophrastus Such" etc.

Among other writers of the Victorian Age, there were Charles Reade, Anthony Trollope, Charlotte Bonti, Edward Bulwer Lytton, Charles Kingsley, Mrs. Elizabeth Gaskell, Thomas Hardy, Robert Louis Stevenson, Richard Doddridge Blackman, George Meredith, Thomas Babington Macaulay, an essayist, Thomas Carlyh, John Ruskin, Mathew Arnold, John Henry Newman etc.

Thomas Hardy's "Under the Greenwood Tree", "A Pair of Blue Eyes", "Far from the Madding Crowd", "The Return of Nature", "The Woodlanders", "Tess of the D'Urbervillas", "Jude the Obscure" are his best works.

Stevenson's wonderful novels, such as "Treasure Island", "Dr. Jekyll and Hyde", "Kidnapped", "The Master of Ballantrae", "David Balfour", and his remarkable essays, namely "Virginibus Puerisque", "Familiar Studies of Men and Books", and "Memoirs and portraits", and his sketches of travels, like "An Island Voyage", "Travels with a Donkey", "Across the Plains", "The Amateur Emigrant", and also volumes of poems, "Underwoods", "A Child's Garden of Verses" make him a great author.

Macaulay is famous in literature for his essays, such as History of England, Essays on Milton, etc. His poetical work "Lays of an Ancient Rome" is a collection of ballads. Ruskin's major essays are "Ethics of the Dust", "Crown of Wild Olive", "Sesame and Lilies", "Fors Clavigera", "Unto the Last", and of his books of art, "Seven Lamps of Architecture", "Stones of Venice", "Modern Painters" established him as prominent writer of the age.

Mathew Arnold's popular works are "The Strayed Reveller and other poems", "Balder Dead", "Sohrab and Rustam", "Empedocles on Etna and Other Poems"; His essays: "The Study of Poetry", "On Translating Homer", "Essays in Criticism", "Friendship's Garland", "Culture and Anarchy" and books on religious subjects, like "St. Paul and Protestantism", "Liberation and Dogma", "God and the Bible", "Last Essays on Church and Religion", "Discourses in America" etc. are equally adored.

TWENTIETH CENTAURY LITERATURE
During the twentieth-century, English literature took a new turn, bringing a noticeable sign of development in almost all its branches, especially in novel-writing. The World-War II left an unavoidable influence on the contemporary literature. The signs of rapidly grown modernity are noticed in prose and poetry, not only in England but also in America.
The prominent writers during the century were Rudyard Kipling (1856-1936), Herbert G. Wells (1866-1946), John Galsworthy (1867-1933), James M. Barrie (1860-1937), Joseph Conrad (1857-1924), Arnold Bennett (1867-1931), Samuel Butler (1835-1902), John Masefield, George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950), William Butler Yeats (1865-1939), George W. Russell (1867-1935), John Millington Synge (1871-1909), Walter de la Mare (1873-1956), among others.

Kipling's verses possess ballad-like quality. Some of them are "Departmental Ditties", "Barrack-Room Ballads" etc. Some of his best verses are "Ballad of East and West", "Gunga Din", "Fuzzy Wuzzy" etc. His short story collection include "A Diversity of Creatures", "Soldiers Three", and also his fictions, "The Brushwood Boy", "Captain's Courageous", "Kim", "The Jungle Book" etc. make him a great writer.

H.G. Wells is known mainly for his unique style of writing. His famous works are "An Experiment in Autobiography", "Tono-Bungay", "The New Machiavelli", "The Soul of a Bishop", "Joan and Peter", "Outline of History", "A Year of Prophesying", "The Shape of Things to Come", "The Time Machine", "Mr. Britling Sees it Through", "The Wheel of Chance" etc.

Galsworthy's novels, "The Man of Property", "Flowing Wilderness and Indian Summer of a Forsyle" raised him to the level of front rank novelists. His plays, "The Island Pharisees", "Justice", "Loyalties", "Escape", "The Silver Box", etc are also popular. Masefield's "Collected Poems", "Salt-Water Ballads", "Ballads and Poems", "The Everlasting Mercy", "The Widow in the Bye Street", "The Daffodil Fields", "End and Beginning" etc. are masterpieces.

Barnard Shaw is perhaps the most dynamic dramatist of modern English literature. His famous dramas are "Windows' Houses", "Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles", "Caesar and Cleopatra", "The Devil's Disciples", "The Doctor's Dilemma", "Candida", "John Bull's Other Island", "Divorcee", "Getting Married" etc. W.B. Yeats is a renowned essayist, editor, poet, playwright of the modern age. His famous works are "The Seven Woods", "Wild Swans at Coole", "The wind among the Reeds", "Collected Poems" etc. and his plays, like "Land of Heart's Desire", "The Shadowy Waters" etc. are notable. Walter dela Mare is a famous modern poet. Some of his poetical works are "The Listeners and Other Poems", "Peacock Pie", "The Fleeting and Other Poems", "Bells and Grass", "Collected Poems" etc.

The inter-war years (World War II) produced many bold writers in English literature. Some of them are David Herbert Lawrence (1885-1930), James Joyce (1882-1941), Virginia Woolf (1882-1941), Edward Morgan Foster (1879-1970), Aldous Leonard Huxley (1894-1963), Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889), T.S. Eliot (1888-1965), Wystan Hugh Auden (1907-1973), Stephen Spender (1909-1977), C. Day Lewis (1904-1972), Louis MacNiece (1907-1967), Dame Edith Sitwell (1887-1964), Sean O'case'y (1884-1964), Sir Noel Coward (1899-1973), William Somerset Maugham (1874-1965), J.B. Priestley(1894- ), James Bridie (1888-1951) etc.

Among the writers of miscellaneous prose, Winston Churchill (1874-1965) stands supreme. His speeches and non-fictional works include "Into Battle", "The Second World War" etc.

During the forties and the later period of the twentieth-century, there was a remarkable growth of the American novels in English language. The works of the American novels are found to be realistic with picture of contemporary life and society, indicating lack of moral values, exposure of corruption, emotional crises etc. The famous writer in this respect is Earnest Hemmingway (1898-1962) whose noteworthy novels are "The Sun Also Rises", "Men Without Women", "A Farwell to Arms", "To Have and Have Not" and "For Whom the Bell Tolls".

William Faulkner (1897-1962) is the author of "Soldier's Pay", "The Sound and Fury", "Sanctuary" etc. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) was a famous imagist poet; his works include "The Pisan Cantons" which indicate vast survey of history from his personal emotional sustenance.

Among the modern outstanding writers of prose in England are Henry Miller (1891- ), John Steinbeck (1902-1968), Nelson Allgren (1909- ), James Baldwin (1924- ), V.S. Naipaul (1932- ), Graham Greene (1904- ), Charles Percy Snow (1905- ), Evelyn Wamgh (1903-1950), etc. and in the field of poetry, Dylan Marlais Thomas (1914-1953), George Barker (1913- ), Robert Conquest (1917- ), Ted Hughes (1930- ), Dominic Frank (Dom) Moraes (1938- ), etc.
As dramatists, Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956), the foremost, Samuel Beckett (1906- ), John James Osborne (1929- ), Arnold Wesker (1932- ), Harold Pinter (1930- ), etc. are famous.

Popular scientific literature has also grown during the post-war period. The names of Julian Huxley, Jacob Bronowski, J.D. Bernal etc. are noteworthy in this respect. Huxley's "Man in the Modern World" and Bronowski's "The Ascent of Man" are very popular.

LEARRATES

1/ List Of Classical Writers
1. Geoffrey Chaucer, 2. Edmund Spencer, 3. Francis Bacon, 4. Christopher Marlowe, 5. William Shakespeare, 6. Ben Johnson, 7. John Milton, 8. John Bunyan, 9. John Dryden, 10. Daniel Defoe, 11. Jonathan Swift, 12. Joseph Addison, 13. Alexander Pope, 14. Samuel Johnson, 15. Thomas Gray, 16. Oliver Goldsmith, 17. Edmund Burke, 18. William Cowper, 19. William Blake, 20. Robert Burns, 21. William Wordsworth, 22. Sir Walter Scott, 23. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 24. Robert Southway, 25. Jane Austen, 26. Charles Lamb, 27. George Gordon, Lord Byron, 28. Percy Bysshe Shelley, 29, John Keats, 30. Alfred Tennyson, 31. William Makepeace Thackeray, 32. Charles Dickens, 33. Robert Browning, 34. John Ruskin, 35. Mathew Arnold, 36. Thomas Hardy, 37, Abraham Stroker, 38. Robert Louis Stevenson, 39. George Bernard Shaw, 40. William Butler Yeats, 41. Rudyard Kipling, 42. H.G. Wells, 43. Walter de la Mare, 44. William Somerset Maugham, 45. John Masefield, 46. James Joyce, 47. Virginia Woolf, 48. T.S. Eliot, 49. Katherine Mansfield, 50. John Boynton Priestley

2/ List of Nobel Prize Winners For Literature

2002 Imre Kertész--Hungary
2001 V.S. Naipaul--Great Britain
2000 Gao Xingjian--China
1999 Günter Grass--Germany
1998 José Saramago--Portugal
1997 Dario Fo--Italy
1996 Wislawa Szymborska--Poland
1995 Seamus Heaney--Ireland
1994 Kenzaburo Oe--Japan
1993 Toni Morrison--U.S.A
1992 Derek Walcott--St. Lucia
1991 Nadine Gordimer--South Africa
1990 Octavio Paz--Mexico
1989 Dr. Camilo José Cela--Spain
1988 Naguib Mahfouz--Egypt
1987 Joseph Brodsky--U.S.A
1986 Wole Soyinka--Nigeria
1985 Claude Simon--France
1984 Jaroslav Seifert--Czechoslovakia
1983 William Golding--United Kingdom
1982 Gabriel García Márquez--Colombia
1981 Elias Canetti--United Kingdom
1980 Czeslaw Milosz--Poland/U.S.A
1979 Odysseus Elytis--Greece
1978 Isaac Bashevis Singer--U.S.A.
1977 Vincente Aleixandre--Spain
1976 Saul Bellow--U.S.A
1975 Eugenio Montale--Italy
1974 Eyvind Johnson and Harry Martinson--Sweden
1973 Patrick White--Australia
1972 Heinrich Böll--Germany
1971 Pablo Neruda--Chile
1970 Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn--U.S.S.R.
1969 Samuel Beckett--Ireland
1968 Yasunari Kawabata--Japan
1967 Miguel A. Asturias--Guatemala
1966 Schmel Y. Agnon (Israel) and Nelly Sachs (Germany)
1965 Michail Sholokhov--U.S.S.R.
1964 Jean-Paul Sartre--France (declined)
1963 Giorgos Seferis--Greece
1962 John Steinbeck--U.S.A
1961 Ivo Andric--Yugoslavia
1960 Saint-John Perse--France
1959 Salvatore Quasimodo--Italy
1958 Boris Pasternak--U.S.S.R.
1957 Albert Camus--France
1956 J.R. Jiménez--Spain
1955 Halldór Kiljan Laxness--Iceland
1954 Ernest Hemingway--U.S.A.
1953 Winston Churchill--United Kingdom
1952 François Mauriac--France
1951 Pär Lagerkvist--Sweden
1950 Bertrand Russell--United Kingdom
1949 William Faulkner--U.S.A.
1948 T.S. Eliot--United Kingdom
1947 André Gide--France
1946 Hermann Hesse--Switzerland
1945 Gabriela Mistral--Chile
1944 Johannes V. Jensen--Denmark
1943 No Award
1942 No Award
1941 No Award
1940 No Award
1939 F.E. Sillanpää--Finland
1938 Pearl S. Buck--U.S.A.
1937 Roger Martin du Gard--France
1936 Eugene O'Neill--U.S.A.
1935 No Award
1934 Luigi Pirandello--Italy
1933 Ivan Bunin--U.S.S.R
1932 John Galsworthy--United Kingdom
1931 Erik Axel Karlfeldt--Italy
1930 Sinclair Lewis--U.S.A.
1929 Thomas Mann--Germany
1928 Singrid Undset--Norway
1927 Henri Bergson--France
1926 Grazia Deledda--Italy
1925 George Bernard Shaw--United Kingdom
1924 Wladyslaw Reymont--Poland
1923 William Butler Yeats--Ireland
1922 Jacinto Benavente--Spain
1921 Anatole France--France
1920 Knut Hamsun--Norway
1919 Carl Spitteler--Switzerland
1918 No Award
1917 Karl Gjellerup (Italy) and Henrik Pontoppidan (Denmark)
1916 Verner von Heidenstam--Sweden
1915 Romain Rolland--France
1914 No Award
1913 Rabindranath Tagore--India
1912 Gerhart Hauptmann--Germany
1911 Maurice Maeterlinck--Belgium
1910 Paul von Heyse--Germany
1909 Selma Lagerlöf--Sweden
1908 Rudolf Eucken--Germany
1907 Rudyard Kipling--United Kingdom
1906 Giosue Carducci--Italy
1905 Henryk Sienkiewicz--Poland
1904 José Echegaray (Spain) and Frédéric Mistral (France)
1903 Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson--Norway
1902 Theodor Mommsen--Germany
1901 Sully Prudhomme--France

3/ List The Booker Prize Winners

2001
True History of the Kelly Gang by Peter Carey--Winner!
Atonement by Ian McEwan
Oxygen by Andrew Miller
Number 9 Dream by David Mitchell
The Dark Room by Rachel Seiffert
Hotel World by Ali Smith

2000
The Blind Assassin by Margaret Atwood--Winner!
The Hiding Place by Trezza Azzopardi
The Keepers of Truth by Michael Collins
When We Were Orphans by Kazuo Ishiguro
English Passengers by Matthew Kneale
The Deposition of Father McGreevy by Brian O'Doherty

1999
Disgraceby J.M. Coetzee--Winner!
Fasting, Feasting by Anita Desai
Headlong by Michael Frayn
Our Fathers by Andrew O'Hagan
The Map of Love by Ahdaf Soueif
The Blackwater Lightship by Colm Tóibín

1998
Amsterdam by Ian McEwan--Winner!
Master Georgie by Beryl Bainbridge
England, England by Julian Barnes
The Industry of Souls by Martin Booth
Breakfast on Pluto by Patrick McCabe
The Restraint of Beasts by Magnus Mills

1997
The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy--Winner!
The Essence of the Thing by Madeleine St. John
Grace Notes by Bernard MacLaverty
The Underground Man by Mick Jackson
Europa by Tim Parks
Quarantineby Jim Crace

1996
Last Orders by Graham Swift--Winner!
Every Man for Himself by Beryl Bainbridge
Alias Grace by Margaret Atwood
Reading in the Dark by Seamus Deane
A Fine Balance by Rohinton Mistry
The Orchard on Fire by Shena Mackay

1995
The Ghost Road by Pat Barker--Winner!
In Every Face I Meet by Justin Cartwright
The Moor's Last Sigh by Salman Rushdie
Morality Play by Barry Unsworth
The Riders by Tim Winton

1994
How Late It Was, How Late by James Kelman--Winner!
Beside the Ocean of Time by George Mackay Brown
Reef by Romesh Gunesekera
The Folding Star by Alan Hollinghurst
Knowledge of Angels by Jill Paton Walsh

1993
Paddy Clark Ha Ha Ha by Roddy Doyle--Winner!
Scar Tissue by Michael Ignatieff
Under the Frog by Tibor Fischer
Remembering Babylon by David Malouf
Crossing the River by Caryl Phillips
The Stone Diaries by Carol Shields

1992
The English Patient by Michael Ondaatje--Cowinner!
Sacred Hunger by Barry Unsworth--Cowinner!
Serenity House by Christopher Hope
The Butcher Boy by Patrick McCabe
Black Dogs by Ian McEwan
Daughters of the House by Michele Roberts

1991
The Famished Road by Ben Okri--Winner!
Time's Arrow by Martin Amis
The Van by Roddy Doyle
Such a Long Journey by Rohinton Mistry
The Redundancy of Courage by Timothy Mo
Reading Turgenev by William Trevor

1990
Possession by A.S. Byatt--Winner!
An Awfully Big Adventure by Beryl Bainbridge
The Gate of Angels by Penelope Fitzgerald
Amongst Women by John McGahern
Lies of Silence by Brian Moore
Solomon Gursky Was Here by Mordecai Richler

1989
The Remains of the Day by Kazuo Ishiguro--Winner!
Cat's Eye by Margaret Atwood
The Book of Evidence by John Banville
Jigsaw: An Unsentimental Education by Sybille Bedford
A Disaffection by James Kelman
Restoration by Rose Tremain

1988
Oscar and Lucinda by Peter Carey--Winner!
Utz by Bruce Chatwin
The Beginning of Spring by Penelope Fitzgerald
Nice Work by David Lodge
The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie
The Lost Father by Marina Warner

1987
Moon Tiger by Penelope Lively--Winner!
Anthills of the Savannah by Chinua Achebe
Chatterton by Peter Ackroyd
Circles of Deceit by Nina Bawden
The Colour of Blood by Brian Moore
The Book and the Brotherhood by Iris Murdoch

1986
The Old Devils by Kingsley Amis--Winner!
The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood
Gabriel's Lament by Paul Bailey
What's Bred in the Bone by Robertson Davies
An Artist of the Floating World by Kazuo Ishiguro
Insular Possession by Timothy Mo

1985
The Bone People by Keri Hulme--Winner!
Illywhacker by Peter Carey
The Battle of Pollock's Crossing by J.L. Carr
The Good Terrorist by Doris Lessing
Last Letters from Hav by Jan Morris
The Good Apprentice by Iris Murdoch

1984
Hotel du Lac by Anita Brookner--Winner!
Empire of the Sun by J.G. Ballard
Flaubert's Parrot by Julian Barnes
In Custody by Anita Desai
According to Mark by Penelope Lively
Small World by David Lodge

1983
Life and Times of Michael K. by J.M. Coetzee--Winner!
Rates of Exchange by Malcolm Bradbury
Flying to Nowhere by John Fuller
The Illusionist by Anita Mason
Shame by Salman Rushdie
Waterland by Graham Swift

1982
Schindler's List by Thomas Keneally--Winner!
Silence Among the Weapons by John Arden
An Ice-Cream War by William Boyd
Constance or Solitary Practices by Lawrence Durrell
The 27th Kingdom by Alice Thomas Ellis
Sour Sweet by Timothy Mo

1981
Midnight's Children by Salman Rushdie--Winner!
Good Behaviour by Molly Keane
The Sirian Experiments by Doris Lessing
The Comfort of Strangers by Ian McEwan
Rhine Journey by Anne Schlee
Loitering with Intent by Muriel Spark
The White Hotel by D.M. Thomas

1980
Rites of Passage by William Golding--Winner!
Earthly Powers by Anthony Burgess
A Month in the Country by J.L. Carr
Clear Light of Day by Anita Desai
The Beggar Maid byAlice Munro
No Country for Young Men by Julia O'Faolain
Pascali's Island by Barry Unsworth

1979
Offshore by Penelope Fitzgerald--Winner!
Confederates by Thomas Keneally
A Bend in the River by V.S. Naipaul
Joseph by Julian Rathbone
Praxis by Fay Weldon

1978
The Sea, the Sea by Iris Murdoch--Winner!
Jake's Thing by Kingsley Amis
Rumours of Rain by Andre Brink
The Bookshop by Penelope Fitzgerald
God on the Rocks by Jane Gardam
A Five-Year Sentence by Bernice Rubens

1977
Staying On by Paul Scott--Winner!
Peter Smart's Confessions byPaul Bailey
Great Granny Webster by Caroline Blackwood
Shadows on Our Skin by Jennifer Johnston
The Road to Lichfield by Penelope Lively
Quartet in Autumn by Barbara Pym

1976
Saville by David Storey--Winner!
An Instant in the Wind by Andre Brink
Rising by R.C. Hutchinson
The Doctor's Wife by Brian Moore
King Fisher Lives by Julian Rathbone
The Children of Dynmouth by William Trevor

1975
Heat and Dust by Ruth Prawer Jhabvala--Winner!
Gossip from the Forest by Thomas Keneally

1974
The Conservationist by Nadine Gordimer--Cowinner!
Holiday by Stanley Middleton--Cowinner!
Ending Up by Kingsley Amis
The Bottle Factory Outing by Beryl Bainbridge
In Their Wisdom by C.P. Snow

1973
The Siege of Krishnapur by J.G. Farrell--Winner!
The Dressmaker by Beryl Bainbridge
The Green Equinox by Elizabeth Mavor
The Black Prince by Iris Murdoch

1972
G by John Berger--Winner!
The Bird of Night by Susan Hill
The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith by Thomas Keneally
Pasmore by David Storey

1971
In a Free State by V.S. Naipaul--Winner!
The Big Chapel by Thomas Kilroy
Briefing for a Descent into Hell by Doris Lessing
St. Urbain's Horseman by Mordecai Richler
Goshawk Squadron by Derek Robinson
Mrs Palfrey at the Clairmont by Elizabeth Taylor

1970
The Elected Member by Bernice Rubens--Winner!
John Brown's Body by A.L. Barker
Eva Trout by Elizabeth Bowen
Bruno's Dream by Iris Murdoch
Mrs. Eckdorf in O'Neill's Hotel by William Trevor
The Conjunction by T. Wheeler

1969
Something to Answer For by P.H. Newby--Winner!
Figures in a Landscape by Barry England
The Impossible Object by Nicholas Mosley
The Nice and the Good by Iris Murdoch
The Public Image by Muriel Spark
From Scenes Like These by G.M. Williams

4/ List of The Pulitzer Prize Winners

Non-fiction
2002 Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution by Diane McWhorter
2001 Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan by Herbert P. Bix
2000 Embracing Defeat by John W. Dower
1999 Annals of the Former World by John McPhee
1998 Guns, Germs, and Steel by Jared Diamond
1997 Ashes to Ashes by Richard Kluger
1996 The Haunted Land by Tina Rosenberg
1995 The Beak of the Finch by Jonathan Weiner
1994 Lenin's Tomb by David Remnick
1993 Lincoln at Gettysburg by Garry Wills
1992 The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power by Daniel Yergin
1991 The Antsby Bert Hölldobler and Edward O. Wilson
1990 And Their Children After Themby Dale Maharidge and Michael Williamson
1989 A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam by Neil Sheehan
1988 The Making of the Atomic Bomb by Richard Rhodes
1987 Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land by David K. Shipler
1986 Common Ground by J. Anthony Lukas

Fiction
2002 Empire Falls by Richard Russo
2001 The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay by Michael Chabon
2000 Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri
1999 The Hours by Michael Cunningham
1998 American Pastoral by Philip Roth
1997 Martin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer by Steven Millhauser
1996 Independence Day by Richard Ford
1995 The Stone Diaries by Carol Shields
1994 The Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx
1993 A Good Scent from a Strange Mountain by Robert Olen Butler
1992 A Thousand Acres by Jane Smiley
1991 Rabbit at Rest by John Updike
1990 The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos
1989 Breathing Lessons by Anne Tyler
1988 Beloved by Toni Morrison
1987 A Summons to Memphis by Peter Taylor
1986 Lonesome Dove by Larry McMurtry
1985 Foreign Affairs by Alison Lurie
1984 Ironweed by William Kennedy
1983 The Color Purple by Alice Walker
1982 Rabbit Is Rich by John Updike
1981 A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole
1980 The Executioner's Song by Norman Mailer
1979 The Stories of John Cheever by John Cheever
1978 Elbow Room by James Alan McPherson
1977 No Award
1976 Humboldt's Gift by Saul Bellow
1975 The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara
1974 No Award
1973 The Optimist's Daughter by Eudora Welty
1972 Angle of Repose byWallace Stegner
1971 No Award
1970 Collected Stories by Jean Stafford
1969 House Made of Dawn by N. Scott Momaday
1968 The Confessions of Nat Turner by William Styron
1967 The Fixer by Bernard Malamud
1966 Collected Stories by Katherine Anne Porter
1965 The Keepers of the House by Shirley Ann Grau

Biography

2002 John Adams by David McCullough
2001 W.E.B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century, 1919-1963 by David Levering Lewis
2000 Véra by Stacy Schiff
1999 Lindbergh by A. Scott Berg
1998 Personal History by Katharine Graham
1997 Angela's Ashes by Frank McCourt
1996 God: A Biography by Jack Miles
1995 Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life by Joan D. Hedrick
1994 W.E.B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868-1919 by David Levering Lewis
1993 Truman by David McCullough
1992 Fortunate Son by Lewis B. Puller Jr.
1991 Jackson Pollock by Steven Naifeh and Gregory White Smith
1990 Machiavelli in Hell by Sebastian de Grazia
1989 Oscar Wilde by Richard Ellmann
1988 Look Homeward: A Life of Thomas Wolfe by David Herbert Donald
1987 Bearing the Cross by David J. Garrow
1986 Louise Bogan: A Portrait by Elizabeth Frank

History
2002 The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America by Louis Menand
2001 Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation by Joseph J. Ellis
2000 Freedom from Fear by David M. Kennedy
1999 Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 by Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace
1998 Summer for the Gods by Edward J. Larson
1997 Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution by Jack N. Rakove
1996 William Cooper's Town by Alan Taylor
1995 No Ordinary Time by Doris Kearns Goodwin
1994 No Award
1993 The Radicalism of the American Revolution by Gordon S. Wood
1992 The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties by Mark E. Neely Jr.
1991 A Midwife's Tale by Laurel Thatcher Ulrich
1990 In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines by Stanley Karnow
1989 Battle Cry of Freedom by James M. McPherson
And Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-63 by Taylor Branch
1988 The Launching of Modern American Science, 1846-1976 by Robert V. Bruce
1987 Voyagers to the West by Bernard Bailyn
1986 The Heavens and the Earth by Walter A. McDougall

Drama
2002 Topdog/Underdog by Suzan-Lori Parks
2001 Proof by David Auburn
2000 Dinner with Friends by Donald Margulies
1999 Wit by Margaret Edson
1998 How I Learned to Drive by Paula Vogel
1997 No Award
1996 Rent by Jonathan Larson
1995 The Young Man from Atlanta by Horton Foote
1994 Three Tall Women by Edward Albee
1993 Angels in America by Tony Kushner
1992 The Kentucky Cycle by Robert Schenkkan
1991 Lost in Yonkers by Neil Simon
1990 The Piano Lesson by August Wilson
1989 The Heidi Chronicles by Wendy Wasserstein
1988 Driving Miss Daisy by Alfred Uhry
1987 Fences by August Wilson
1986 No Award

Poetry
2002 Practical Gods by Carl Dennis
2001 Different Hours by Stephen Dunn
2000 Repair by C.K. Williams
1999 Blizzard of One by Mark Strand
1998 Black Zodiac by Charles Wright
1997 Alive Together by Lisel Mueller
1996 The Dream of the Unified Front by Jorie Graham
1995 The Simple Truth by Philip Levine
1994 Neon Vernacular by Yusef Komunyakaa
1993 The Wild Iris by Louise Gluck
1992 Selected Poems by James Tate
1991 Near Changes by Mona Van Duyn
1990 The World Doesn't End by Charles Simic
1989 New and Collected Poems by Richard Wilbur
1988 Partial Accounts by William Meredith
1987 Thomas and Beulah by Rita Dove
1986 The Flying Change by Henry Taylor

5/ List of The PEN/Faulkner Award Winners

2002
Bel Canto by Ann Patchett--Winner!
Sister Noon by Karen Joy Fowler
The Corrections by Jonathan Franzen
The Hunters by Claire Messud
The Death of Vishnu by Manil Suri

2001
The Human Stain by Philip Roth--Winner!
The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay by Michael Chabon
Harry Gold by Millicent Dillon
The Name of the World by Denis Johnson
Off Keck Road by Mona Simpson

2000
Waiting by Ha Jin--Winner!
The Night Inspector by Frederick Busch
Pu-239 and Other Russian Fantasies by Ken Kalfus
Amy and Isabelle by Elizabeth Strout
Siam; or, the Woman Who Shot a Man by Lily Tuck

1999
The Hours by Michael Cunningham--Winner!
The Poisonwood Bible by Barbara Kingsolver
Cloudsplitter by Russell Banks
Starting Out in the Evening by Brian Morton
The Doctor Stories by Richard Selzer

1998
The Bear Comes Home by Rafi Zabor--Winner!
The Mercy Seat by Rilla Askew
The Hundred Brothers by Donald Antrim
Because They Wanted To by Mary Gaitskill
The Ordinary Seaman by Francisco Goldman

1997
Women in Their Beds by Gina Berriault

1996
Independence Day by Richard Ford

1995
Snow Falling on Cedars by David Guterson

1994
Operation Shylock by Philip Roth

1993
Postcards by E. Annie Proulx

1992
Mao II by Don DeLillo

1991
Philadelphia Fire by John Edgar Wideman

1990
Billy Bathgate by E.L. Doctorow

1989
Dusk and Other Stories by James Salter

1988
World's End by T.C. Boyle

1987
Soldiers in Hiding by Richard Wiley

1986
The Old Forest and Other Stories by Peter Taylor

6/ List of The National Book Awards Winners

2001
Fiction: The Corrections by Jonathan Franzen
Nonfiction:The Noonday Demon by Andrew Solomon
Poetry: Poems Seven: New and Complete Poetry by Alan Dugan
Young People's Literature: True Believer by Virginia Euwer Wolff

2000
Fiction: In America by Susan Sontag
Nonfiction: In the Heart of the Sea by Nathaniel Philbrick
Poetry: Blessing the Boats: New and Selected Poems, 1988-2000 by Lucille Clifton
Young People's Literature: Homeless Bird by Gloria Whelan

1999
Fiction: Waiting by Ha Jin
Nonfiction: Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II by John W. Dower
Poetry: Vice: New and Selected Poems by Ai
Young People's Literature: When Zachary Beaver Came to Town by Kimberly Willis Holt

1998
Fiction: Charming Billy by Alice McDermott
Nonfiction: Slaves in the Family by Edward Ball
Poetry: This Time: New and Selected Poems by Gerald Stern
Young People's Literature: Holes by Louis Sachar

1997
Fiction: Cold Mountain by Charles Frazier
Nonfiction: American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson by Joseph J. Ellis
Poetry: Effort at Speech: New and Selected Poems by William Meredith
Young People's Literature: Dancing on the Edge by Han Nolan

1996
Fiction: Ship Fever by Andrea Barrett
Nonfiction: An American Requiem by James Carroll
Poetry: Scrambled Eggs & Whiskey by Hayden Carruth
Young People's Literature: Parrot in the Oven by Victor Martinez

1995
Fiction: Sabbath's Theater by Philip Roth
Nonfiction: The Haunted Land: Facing Europe's Ghosts After Communism by Tina Rosenberg
Poetry: Passing Through by Stanley Kunitz

1994
Fiction: A Frolic of His Own by William Gadis
Nonfiction: How We Die by Sherwin B. Nuland
Poetry: Worshipful Company of Fletchers by James Tate

1993
Fiction: The Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx
Nonfiction: United States: Essays, 1952-1992 by Gore Vidal
Poetry: Garbage by A.R. Ammons

1992
Fiction: All the Pretty Horses by Cormac McCarthy
Nonfiction: Becoming a Man by Paul Monette
Poetry: New and Selected Poems by Mary Oliver

1991
Fiction: Mating by Norman Rush
Nonfiction: Freedom by Orlando Patterson
Poetry: What Work Is by Philip Levine

1990
Fiction: Middle Passageby Charles Johnson
Nonfiction: The House of Morgan by Ron Chernow

1989
Fiction: Spartina by John Casey
Nonfiction: From Beirut to Jerusalem by Thomas L. Friedman

 

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